Agenda
The European Union's Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) includes the gradual framing of a common defence policy which might in time lead to a common defence. The CSDP allows the Union to develop its civilian and military capacities for crisis management and conflict prevention at international level, thus helping to maintain peace and international security, in accordance with the United Nations Charter. The CSDP includes a strong conflict prevention component.
History
With the end of the Cold War, EU countries have implemented a variety of reforms concerning their defence and military structures which have allowed them to adapt to the new international system and its related challenges. With the launch of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and then the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), the EU and its member states have played an increasing role in international affairs, in particular through peacebuilding operations.
The Lisbon Treaty enlarged the scope of the European Union's CSDP activities. The Petersberg tasks, which define the framework for EU crisis management action, initially consisted of humanitarian and evacuation missions, peacekeeping, and combat troop missions for crisis management purposes, but these were extended to include joint action on disarmament, advice and support on military matters, conflict prevention and peacekeeping missions and post-conflict stabilisation operations.
Institutional structure
The Lisbon Treaty created the function of High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and established the EU’s diplomatic arm, the European External Action Service (EEAS). Overall responsibility for CSDP lies with the High Representative, while the EEAS assists the High Representative in ensuring the consistency and coordination of the Union's external action as well as by preparing policy proposals and implementing them after their approval by the Council.
The CSDP is coordinated by the Political and Security Committee (PSC), the EU Military Committee (EUMC) and the EU Military Staff (EUMS), which are made up of military personnel from the member states. Finally, the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) is responsible for planning and overseeing civilian CSDP operations.
Challenges
Politics
Common security and defense policies fall under the EU's intergovernmental pillar, which implies that member states dominate the decision-making process and are the main responsible actors for the policy output. Member states, while committed to the purposes of the Union, remain driven by their national agenda and priorities. Indeed, the diverging preferences, interests and priorities of EU member states make it difficult to reach common strategic positions at the European level.
National sovereignty
The dichotomy between sovereign state interests and the growing power of a supranational Union has always been at the core of the EU foreign policy debate. Some would argue that the EU is limited as an international actor exactly because states are reticent to hand over sovereign rights to a central foreign policy decision-making authority - thus limiting the scope and power of the EU to act. The need to seek consensus is not only time-consuming but also a hostage to fortune, increasingly so as the EU enlarges.
Economy
Over the past decade, European defence budgets have been declining steadily. The financial crisis is exacerbating the situation and results in further uncoordinated cuts, which are reinforcing capability gaps. The World Military Balance 2013 reflects the recent trends in the global redistribution of military power. While real increases were seen in the Middle East, North Africa, Russia, Eurasia, Latin America and Asia in 2012, North America and Europe were experiencing real declines.
Internal division
Five of the six biggest countries in the EU, excluding Britain, have called for a radical overhaul of European foreign and defence policies to create a powerful new pan-European foreign ministry, majority voting on common foreign policies, a possible European army, and a single market for EU defence industries. The recommendations have been met with stiff resistance from Britain, which would veto a European army and refuse to take part in foreign policies with which it disagreed.
Relevance
Many analysts assert that CSDP operations have made a positive, if modest, contribution to international security. There has been a long, slow learning curve in numerous instances, and many of the missions have been relatively small. Some observers note that the EU’s efforts have contributed to burden sharing and collective security by taking responsibility for matters that might otherwise have fallen to the United Nations, NATO, the United States, or regional institutions.
The EU has comparative advantages as an actor in some cases, and it has developed the institutional support structures needed for launching and conducting a wide range of civilian and rule-of-law missions, as well as some types of military missions. However, cooperation on defence has at times proved confusing and difficult as EU defence somewhat duplicates both NATO’s and individual member states’ existing defence activities.
Key policies
Russia
Broadly speaking, the EU is split between two approaches towards Russia. At one end of the spectrum are those who view Russia as a potential partner that can be drawn into the EU’s orbit through a process of ‘creeping integration.’ At the other end are member states that see and treat Russia as a threat. According to them, Russian expansionism and contempt for democracy must be rolled back through a policy of ‘soft containment’.
Middle East and North Africa
In 2011, the European Council on Foreign Relations launched its Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Programme in response to the dramatic protest movements that swept across the Arab world. The MENA Programme, among other things, seeks to contribute to a new set of North Africa and Middle East policies that support the democratic momentum in the region; drive peace-building solutions; reset EU-MENA relations; and see EU member states play a more active diplomatic problem-solving role.
Terrorism
Action by the European Union has intensified since 9/11, and in particular since the attacks in Madrid (2004) and London (2005). Following proposals by the Presidency and the Counter-Terrorism Coordinator the Council adopted the EU Counter-Terrorism Strategy, which commits the Union to combat terrorism globally while respecting human rights. The EU's Counter-Terrorism Strategy covers four strands of work: Prevention, Protection, Pursuit and Response.
Cyber defence
Within the CSDP, the European Defence Agency (EDA) is developing cyber defence capabilities and technologies, improving cyber defence training and exercises. The EU is also promoting early involvement of industry and academia in developing solutions and in strengthening Europe’s defence industrial base and associated R&D innovations in both civilian and military organisations. The EDA will promote civil-military dialogue and contribute to the coordination between all actors at EU level.
Internal conflicts
The PEACE III Programme is a distinctive EU structural funds programme, which aims at reinforcing progress towards a peaceful and stable society, and promoting reconciliation in Northern Ireland and the Border Region of Ireland. Another important initiative for Northern Ireland is the creation of a Northern Ireland Task Force (NITF). The Task Force puts emphasis on helping the region to create more economic opportunities for its people in order to underpin the peace process.
In 2007 the European Commission approved a Cross-border Co-operation Programme between Hungary and Romania. The programme involves Community support for a number of regions in Hungary and Romania. The programme's overall strategic goal is to bring the people, communities and economic actors of the border area closer to each other in order to facilitate joint development of the co-operation area, building upon the key strengths of the border region.
Current status
Defence forms only one part of a much broader EU foreign and security policy which mobilises a wide range of players, from diplomats and development workers to judges and police, and, when necessary, soldiers. Since its first peacekeeping operation in 2003, the EU has initiated almost 30 CSDP missions (civilian operations for the most part). As of February 2013, there are 16 active CSDP missions: 4 military operations and 12 missions of a civilian nature.
EU missions are generally undertaken on the basis of a UN mandate or with the agreement of the host country. The EU has not yet carried out a military operation comparable, in scale or intensity, to the NATO operation in Afghanistan or the UN missions in Congo or Lebanon.
Key Figures
Defense Budget
In 2010, total defence spending by the 26 EU Member States participating in the European Defence Agency (EDA) remained constant at €194 billion. This represents 1.6% of total GDP. If inflation is taken into account, we can see that defence spending in real terms decreased not only in 2010, but it has been decreasing since 2006. Personnel-related expenditure represents 50% of total defence expenditure. The second biggest component of defence spending is Operation and Maintenance, followed by Investment.
Defence Personnel
In 2010, total defence personnel in the 26 EDA countries numbered 2.0 million. This marks a reduction in defence personnel, continuing a 4-year trend. Military staff, which represents 80% of total defence staff, decreased by almost 3% to 1.62 million. Civilian staff decreased by more than 8% and went below 390 thousand. Turning to deployed operations outside the EU territory, in 2010 the number of troops deployed throughout the year decreased (from 68 to 66 thousand) and was at its lowest since 2006.
Contributing countries
All the EU Member States, except Denmark, participate in the European Defence Agency (Denmark does not participate in the formulation and implementation of EU decisions and actions which have defence implications). The mission of the European Defence Agency is to support the Council and the Member States in their efforts to improve the European Union’s defence capabilities in the field of crisis management and to sustain the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP).
Miscellaneous
Pooling and Sharing refers to Member States-led initiatives to increase collaboration on military capabilities. The pooling of capabilities occurs when several Member States decide to use capabilities on a collective basis. Sharing is when some Member States relinquish some capabilities with the assumption/guarantee that other countries will make them available when necessary. The goal is to preserve national operational capabilities, with improved effect and cost efficiency as a result.
Transition to Globalisation
EU Crisis Management - A Humanitarian Perspective
The many developments that have taken place within the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy are changing the way the EU can respond to crisis situations in third countries. New crisis management capabilities which include humanitarian tasks in their mandates can at best be complementary to humanitarian aid as delivered by ECHO (European Commission Humanitarian Aid Office). At worst, they can threaten or undermine the apolitical nature of EU humanitarian aid.
Globalisation > Social > Humanitarian
Transition to Political Tools
European Conflict Management in the Middle East
Even though the EU and its member states have first and foremost pursued political objectives, they were initially reluctant to become actively involved in direct political negotiations between the parties to the Middle East conflict and in hard security issues, leaving the field of conflict management and conflict resolution largely to the United States. Over the last few years, however, this has changed, not least due to EU ambitions to become a global player.
Political Tools > Regional > Europe > EU > Ext. Policies > Security
Transition to Political Actors
Strategic Priorities for EU Defence Policy
If the EU is to have an effective foreign policy, it will need a clear sense of its priorities and what it is prepared to do through its defence policy. Europe’s evolving strategic landscape includes a more turbulent neighbourhood, the US re-balance towards Asia and a shift in global military power. The EU should be able to carry out a wider range of military tasks to protect its interests and project its values.
Political Actors > Civil Society > Think Tanks > Int. Security
